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Genetically modified food controversies are disputes over the use of foods and other goods derived from genetically modified crops instead of conventional crops, and other uses of genetic engineering in food production. The dispute involves consumers, farmers, biotechnology companies, governmental regulators, non-governmental organizations, and scientists. The key areas of controversy related to genetically modified food (GMO food) are whether such food should be labeled, the role of government regulators, the objectivity of scientific research and publication, the effect of genetically modified crops on health and the environment, the effect on pesticide resistance, the impact of such crops for farmers, and the role of the crops in feeding the world population. While there is concern among the public that eating genetically modified food may be harmful, there is general scientific agreement that food on the market derived from these crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food.〔American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), Board of Directors (2012). (Statement by the AAAS Board of Directors On Labeling of Genetically Modified Foods ), and associated (Press release: Legally Mandating GM Food Labels Could Mislead and Falsely Alarm Consumers )〕〔 No reports of ill effects have been documented in the human population from genetically modified food.〔American Medical Association (2012). (Report 2 of the Council on Science and Public Health: Labeling of Bioengineered Foods ) "Bioengineered foods have been consumed for close to 20 years, and during that time, no overt consequences on human health have been reported and/or substantiated in the peer-reviewed literature." (first page)〕〔United States Institute of Medicine and National Research Council (2004). Safety of Genetically Engineered Foods: Approaches to Assessing Unintended Health Effects. National Academies Press. (Free full-text ). National Academies Press. pp R9-10: "In contrast to adverse health effects that have been associated with some traditional food production methods, similar serious health effects have not been identified as a result of genetic engineering techniques used in food production. This may be because developers of bioengineered organisms perform extensive compositional analyses to determine that each phenotype is desirable and to ensure that unintended changes have not occurred in key components of food."〕 Scientists tend be more concerned about the potential for genetically modified organisms to cause ecological damage. The safety assessment of genetically engineered food products by regulatory bodies starts with an evaluation of whether or not the food is ''substantially equivalent'' to non-genetically engineered counterparts that are already deemed fit for human consumption.〔〔(Substantial Equivalence in Food Safety Assessment, Council for Biotechnology Information, March 11, 2001 ) Archived July 29, 2013〕〔〔 Although labeling of genetically modified organism (GMO) products in the marketplace is required in many countries, it is not required in the United States or Canada and no distinction between marketed GMO and non-GMO foods is recognized by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Opponents of genetically modified food, such as the advocacy groups Organic Consumers Association, the Union of Concerned Scientists, and Greenpeace, say risks have not been adequately identified and managed, and they have questioned the objectivity of regulatory authorities. Some medical groups say there are unanswered questions regarding the potential long-term impact on human health from food derived from GMOs, and propose mandatory labeling〔British Medical Association Board of Science and Education (2004). (Genetically modified food and health: A second interim statement. ) March.〕〔Public Health Association of Australia (2007) (GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOODS ) PHAA AGM 2007〕 or a moratorium on such products.〔Canadian Association of Physicians for the Environment (2013) (Statement on Genetically Modified Organisms in the Environment and the Marketplace. ) October, 2013〕〔Irish Doctors' Environmental Association (IDEA Position on Genetically Modified Foods. ) Retrieved 3/25/14〕〔PR Newswire (Genetically Modified Maize: Doctors' Chamber Warns of "Unpredictable Results" to Humans. ) November 11, 2013〕 Concerns include mixing of genetically modified and non-genetically modified products in the food supply,〔Chartered Institute of Environmental Health (2006) (Proposals for managing the coexistence of GM, conventional and organic crops Response to the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs consultation paper. ) October 2006〕 effects of GMOs on the environment,〔〔 the rigor of the regulatory process,〔〔American Medical Association (2012). (Report 2 of the Council on Science and Public Health: Labeling of Bioengineered Foods. ) "To better detect potential harms of bioengineered foods, the Council believes that pre-market safety assessment should shift from a voluntary notification process to a mandatory requirement." page 7〕 and consolidation of control of the food supply in companies that make and sell GMOs.〔 == Public perception == Consumer concerns about food quality first became prominent long before the advent of GM foods in the 1990s. Upton Sinclair's novel ''The Jungle'' led to the 1906 Pure Food and Drug Act, the first major US legislation on the subject. This began an enduring concern over the purity and later "naturalness" of food that evolved from a focus on sanitation to include added ingredients such as preservatives and flavors and sweeteners, residues such as pesticides, the rise of organic food as a category and finally to concerns over GM food. The public came to see the latter as "unnatural" which created a reverse halo effect.〔Maria Konnikova for the New Yorker. August 8, 2013 (The Psychology of Distrusting G.M.O.s )〕 Specific perceptions include genetic engineering as meddling with naturally evolved biological processes, scientific limitations on comprehending potential negative ramifications.〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=GM Contamination Register Official Website )〕 An opposing perception is that genetic engineering is itself an evolution of traditional selective breeding. Surveys indicate public concerns that eating genetically modified food is harmful,〔Editorial. Editors of Nature. (Nature 497, 5–6 (02 May 2013) doi:10.1038/497005b Fields of gold )〕〔Amy Harmon for ''The New York Times,'' Jan 4, 2014. (A Lonely Quest for Facts on Genetically Modified Crops )〕〔Nathanael Johnson for Grist. Jul 8, 2013 (The genetically modified food debate: Where do we begin? )〕 that biotechnology is risky, that more information is needed and that consumers need control over whether to take such risks.〔 A diffuse sense that social and technological change is accelerating and that people cannot affect this change context becomes focused when such changes affect food.〔 Leaders in driving public perception of the harms of such food in the media include Jeffrey M. Smith, Dr. Oz, Oprah, and Bill Maher;〔〔Keith Kloor for Discover Magazine. October 19, 2012 (Liberals Turn a Blind Eye to Crazy Talk on GMOs )〕 organizations include Organic Consumers Association,〔Mike Hughlett Star Tribune (Minneapolis) for the Witchita Eagle. Nov. 5, 2013 (Firebrand activist leads organic consumers association )〕 Greenpeace (especially with regard to Golden rice)〔Alberts B et al. September 20, 2013 (Editorial: Standing Up for GMOs ) Science 341(6152):1320〕 and Union of Concerned Scientists.〔〔JoAnna Wendel for the Genetic Literacy Project. 10 September 2013 (Scientists, journalists and farmers join lively GMO forum )〕〔Keith Kloor for Discover Magazine's CollideAScape 22 August 2014 (On Double Standards and the Union of Concerned Scientists )〕〔Union of Concerned Scientists. (Alternatives to Genetic Engineering ). Page source description: "Biotechnology companies produce genetically engineered crops to control insects and weeds and to manufacture pharmaceuticals and other chemicals. The Union of Concerned Scientists works to strengthen the federal oversight needed to prevent such products from contaminating our food supply."〕〔Emily Marden, (Risk and Regulation: U.S. Regulatory Policy on Genetically Modified Food and Agriculture ) 44 B.C.L. Rev. 733 (2003). Quote: "By the late 1990s, public awareness of GM foods reached a critical level and a number of public interest groups emerged to focus on the issue. One of the early groups to focus on the issue was Mothers for Natural Law ("MFNL"), an Iowa-based organization that aimed to ban GM foods from the market....The Union of Concerned Scientists ("UCS"), an alliance of 50,000 citizens and scientists, has been another prominent voice on the issue.... As the pace of GM products entering the market increased in the 1990s, UCS became a vocal critic of what it saw as the agency’s collusion with industry and failure to fully take account of allergenicity and other safety issues."〕 Religious groups have raised concerns over whether genetically modified food will remain kosher or halal. In 2001 no such foods had been designated as unacceptable by Orthodox rabbis or Muslim leaders.〔(Food Biotechnology in the United States: Science, Regulation, and Issues ) ''Congressional Research Service: The Library of Congress'' 2001〕 However, some Jewish groups dispute this designation. Environmental groups such as Friends of the Earth,〔(【引用サイトリンク】publisher=Friends of the Earth )〕 include genetic engineering in general as an environmental and political concern. Other groups such as GMWatch and The Institute of Science in Society concentrate mostly or solely on opposing genetically modified crops.〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=GE-Agriculture )〕〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=About GMWatch )〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Genetically modified food controversies」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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